Most Similar Systems – Different Outcome designs seek to identify those key features that are different among otherwise fairly similar systems and which account for the observed outcome in the object under study. Implicit comparisons need to fulfill several requirements. Hospital accreditation method: A comparative study. 56–57). But he hailed the method of concomitant variations, which he evidently interpreted to mean a combination of the statistical and comparative methods, as “the instrument par excellence of sociological research” (p. 132). For example, Vliegenthart et al. After that, a careful analysis of these results is carried out to foresee the future of the product and changes are made accordingly. Thunderbird International Business Review. But even in this project, which was designed with a comparative goal from the outset, meaningful conclusions can only be drawn after careful tests of measurement invariance (see Büchi, 2016). Accordingly, given that considerable progress has been made in this field, we must continue to build on it. Qualitative comparative analysis and related techniques, Understanding the global journalist: A hierarchy‐of‐influences approach, Global journalism research: Theories, methods, findings, future, Qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) and related systematic comparative methods. For testing conceptual equivalence post hoc, several statistical techniques can be used. You'll learn howto use comparative methods for constructive explanation and theory building and applyit to real-world politics. Comparative analysis is an old mode of research, widely used within many, if not all, fields of scientific inquiry. Peter and Lauf (2002) calculated intercoder reliability for the native language approach and project language approach and found that reliability scores are generally somewhat lower for coding in a project language, probably due to variations in individual linguistic proficiencies. For example, having drawn a media sample in country A, what are the equivalents in countries B, C, and D? It is further noted that spatial (cross‐territorial) comparisons should be supplemented wherever possible by a longitudinal (cross‐temporal) dimension to account for the fact that systems and cultures are not frozen in time; rather, they are constantly changing under the influence of transformation processes, such as Americanization, Europeanization, globalization, modernization, or commercialization. The result from the back‐translation is then compared with the original version to evaluate the quality of the translation. The same holds for specific objects and concepts of analysis. Research Methods Vs. Research Design Types of Research Methods George J. Mouly has classified research method into three basic types: Descriptive or Survey Method Historical Method, and Experimental Method On Evaluating Curricular Effectiveness: Judging the Quality of K-12 Mathematics Evaluations. Additionally, the entry discusses statistical techniques that can be used to analyze quantitative comparative data, and we end with a discussion on how globalization impacts comparative (mainly cross‐national) research, as well as how such trends might call for the integration of research with multiple research units at multiple levels. Such quasi‐experimental research designs often forbid a strongly causal attribution of explanatory factors for the determined variance of the dependent variable. Comparative research is a research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures. Regression Analysis, Linear; are regarded as cases with theoretically relevant attributes. In comparable cases, even additional levels can be considered such as journalists nested in organizations nested in countries (Hanitzsch & Berganza, 2012). Esser and Pfetsch concluded some time ago that “[i]n times of growing globalization and supranational integration … it is becoming increasingly difficult to treat societies and cultures as isolated units” (2004, p. 401). Furthermore, they only select countries to which they have access, which predictably results in an overrepresentation of wealthier countries with better access to academic resources. Today, “the” standard form of comparative analysis is usually equated with research methods based on John Stuart Mill's (1843) Methods of Agreement and Difference and Adam Przeworski and Henry Teune's (1970) Most Different and Most Similar Systems Designs. He found that he was able to class welfare states into three types, based on their level of decommodification. That is, if exploratory factor analyses result in similar factors and factor loadings for various items across countries, it is interpreted as a good sign (Vliegenthart, 2012). Esser (2008) applies this technique and identifies, based on a comparative content analysis of television election news, three different political news cultures across five Western countries. Measurement Invariance (Time, Samples, Contexts); These include descriptive, basic explanatory, comparison of relation, and comparative explanatory questions. Longitudinal Data Analysis, Panel Data Analysis; In this sense, it may no longer suffice to compare one nation's journalists with another national sample. In large‐N studies, scholars no longer use theoretically justified purposive samples but larger‐sized samples. To conduct a multilevel model, one needs a reasonable number of higher level units, specifically, a minimum of 10–15 units is required. This brings us to the second sub‐approach. However, there are other types that also deal with many aspects of data including data collection, prediction, and planning. A key issue in conducting comparative empirical research is to ensure equivalence, that is, the ability to validly collect data that are indeed comparable between different contexts and to avoid biases in measurement, instruments, and sampling. We outline the major obstacles in terms of building a comparative theoretical framework, collecting good‐quality data and analyzing those data, and we also explicate the advantages and research questions that can be addressed when taking a comparative approach. (2008) examine the impact of the presence of various frames in national newspapers on aggregate‐level EU support as measured in the biannual Eurobarometer. A sophisticated extension of the most different and most similar logic was developed by Charles Ragin (1987, 2008). Moreover, coders, in an optimal situation, are closely supervised and constantly retested to assess their work quality throughout the term of the project. There are various types of qualitative research methods. More specifically, we introduce those possibilities and challenges that are particular to comparative research by drawing on the available literature from communication science and borrowing from, for example, political science literature. In a third step, which builds on the previous two, classifications and typologies must be established. Formally speaking, most similar systems designs “manipulate” the independent variable by purposefully selecting cases for the analysis that in many ways are very similar (e.g., Scandinavian media systems) but differ in the one critical variable (e.g., granting press subsidies or not). Comparative communication research is a combination of substance (specific objects of investigation studied in different macro‐level contexts) and method (identification of differences and similarities following established rules and using equivalent concepts). These elements will be further discussed in the sections that follow. With both strategies, the systems are selected with regard to the specific contextual conditions influencing the object under investigation (for details, see Landman, 2008). Thus, the question is: how does comparative communication research proceed in practice? Language equivalence and measurement reliability are of paramount importance. Triangulation. The ability to make predictions provides a basis for drawing lessons across countries and contributes to finding solutions to problems prevalent in many countries. Holtz‐Bacha and Kaid (2011) note that in comparative communication research the “study designs and methods are often compromised by the inability to develop consistent methodologies and data‐gathering techniques across countries” (pp. 100–101) makes an important point by arguing, “any similarities or differences revealed by a cross‐national study may be no more than an artifact of the choice of countries.” The rationale for the case selection must be linked to a conceptual framework that justifies all design decisions made by the comparativist. To conduct quantitative research, methods like online survey, questionnaires, sampling methods etc. For example, scholars can calculate and compare Cronbach's alphas to check whether a battery of questions forms a reliable scale for each separate system/culture. The micro‐macro links must be integrated into the theoretical framework that underlies the comparative analysis. The goal of comparative research is drawing a solution out of the similarities and differences between the focused variables. We will return to this method further later. It combines quantitative, variable‐based logic and qualitative, case‐based interpretation. WHAT IS RESEARCH?The systematic, rigorous investigation of asituation or problem in order to generate newknowledge or validate existing knowledge. It is ironic, however, that just at the point when the communication discipline has gained a firmer grip on methodological approaches, useful frameworks and role‐model studies (see Esser & Hanitzsch, 2012b), the processes of transnationalization are apparently undermining the comparative rationale. Additionally, careful theoretical argumentation is crucial. Comparing large quantities of data (especially government sourced) is prevalent. As a method strategy, comparison plays an important part in the most diverse branches of the In an ideal setting, coder training is intense and repeated until intercoder reliability is sufficiently satisfactory. 4 (November): 501–506. This notion of path‐dependency is also reflected in the concept of glocalized hybrid cultures and hybrid media formats. An example of a comparative explanatory question is found in the study by Schuck, Vliegenthart, and de Vreese (2016). Whereas the so-called functionalists only look at the written law, the “law as culture”-approach demands for taking into consideration also the surrounding factors and conditions such as religion, society or economic situation. It instead occupies itself with middle-range theories that do not purport to describe our social system in its entirety, but a subset of it. Entrepreneurial ecosystems in Bulgaria and Romania: A comparative analysis. If preliminary analyses based on literature research, expert testimony, pretests and triangulation of alternative methods reveal that different indicators are necessary to capture the same underlying meaning of the concept, researchers can still undertake their study by following an emic approach. Various techniques can be used to calculate the distance between the cases and the best way to cluster them into groups. It goes one step beyond the comparison of relation question in that it addresses explanations for different relationships across units by taking characteristics of those units into consideration. A Qualitative Review of Cruise Service Quality: Case Studies from Asia. Emic Approach to Qualitative Research; A more elaborate classification of types of comparative analysis is set out by Tilly (1984) who distinguishes four types: individualizing, universalizing, variation-finding and encompassing. That is, if the value items yield similar patterns of correlations across all countries under study, external construct equivalence is assumed to be ensured (Wirth & Kolb, 2012). Once construct equivalence is proven convincingly, an etic approach is acceptable. Research is defined as, a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a problem using scientific methods. The research is based on the assumption that different parameters of political and media systems differentially promote or constrain communication roles and behaviors of organizations and actors within those systems. They consider seven countries over an extended period of time—almost 20 years. Among other things, the analysis refers to the existence of four rather than three groups of countries. Comparative research, simply put, is the act of comparing two or more things with a view to discovering something about one or all of the things being compared. In a follow‐up correspondence analysis of six national press systems over a 40‐year time span, he finds similar political news cultures (Esser & Umbricht, 2013). As with pooled time series, the main challenge posed by the nested structure of many comparative datasets is that observations are not independent, which is one of the main assumptions for many multivariate analyses, such as regression analysis. Their analysis suggests that there are two paths to personalization of political communication. As a consequence, two sub‐approaches are identified. On the other hand, both in terms of quantity and quality, comparative communication research is lagging behind compared to neighboring disciplines, such as political science and sociology. This would offer opportunities to respond to comparative explanatory questions and to more fully understand the role of context on the effects of communicative processes. This explanatory logic can be distinguished from a mere descriptive comparison that is considered less mature, and it also extends clearly beyond the general advantages of comparison as outlined before and constitutes the status of comparative analysis as a separate and original approach. Quantitative Methodology; These external influences can express structural power or dependency relations between media systems (i.e., the hegemonic impact of core powers on peripheral systems in a given network), cultural imperialism of values (“Americanization”), penetration of ideological or economic values (from the West to the South or East), or more neutral processes of interconnectivity and diffusion of ideas. The number of systems compared is here usually somewhere between 3 and 10, and the selection of systems occurs with a specific purpose in mind. In factor analysis, correlation matrices are used, and interval variables with (roughly) normal distribution and linear association are required. The idea behind an emic procedure is to measure professionalization nationally and construct a country‐sensitive, culturally specific instrument. However, “soft control” of the variance can be achieved by supplementing with qualitative tools of causal inference like process tracing or analytical narratives. [4] A typical method of comparing welfare states is to take balance of their levels of spending on social welfare.[3]. Tri Hita Karana-based green environment building management model. This relationship is positioned at the individual level wherein the individuals are nested within the various EU member states. While carefully selecting cases using a most similar approach can hold a lot of crucial variables “constant,” units will never be identical on all but one variable, leaving room for alternative explanations. 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